Sosialisme

Sosialisme merupakan teori atau sistem organisasi sosial dan ekonomi di mana salah satu ciri utamanya adalah hasil kekayaan negara serta alat dan pengurusan mengerjakan sumber kekayaan dinikmati bersama oleh seluruh rakyat secara sama rata^[10]^[11] baik melalui kepemilikan negara, kolektif, koperasi, atau penuntutan semula wang pelaburan.^[12] Fahaman ini tiada tafsiran tunggal utama yang mampu memenuhi semua intipatinya,^[13] dengan kepemilikan sosial menjadi unsur umum yang dimiliki berbagai variannya.^[5]^[14]^[15] Namun, sosialisme umumnya difahamkan bertujuan membela masyarakat daripada dipergunakan tenaganya secara tidak adil^[16] dan menggalakkan kemajuan diri sesama anggotanya.^[17]

Parti-parti berfahaman sosialis boleh bersatu tenaga dengan kesatuan/serikat pekerja, pada waktu lain mandiri dan kritis terhadap serikat; serta ada di negara terindustrialisasi atau berkembang.^[18] Parti dan gagasan sosialis tetap menjadi kekuatan politik dengan berbagai-bagai tingkat kekuatan dan pengaruh di semua benua, serta memimpin pemerintahan nasional di banyak negara di dunia. Saat ini, beberapa jurusan sosialisme juga mengambil guna prinsip dari gerakan sosial lain, seperti kecintalaman, feminisme dan progresivisme.^[19] Fahaman demokrasi sosial sendirinya berkembang lanjut dari ideologi sosialisme yang telah merangkul ekonomi campuran dengan pasar yang mencakup intervensi negara yang substantif dalam bentuk pengagihan semula pendapatan, pengaturan, dan dasar-dasar kebajikan. Demokrasi ekonomi mengusulkan semacam sosialisme pasaran yang lebih memecahkan kawalan ke atas perusahaan, mata wang, pelaburan, dan sumber daya alam.

Gerakan politik sosialis mencakup serangkaian falsafah sahsiah yang berasal dari gerakan revolusioner pertengahan hingga akhir abad ke-18, dan kerana adanya kepedulian terhadap masalah sosial yang terkait dengan kapitalisme.^[13] Pada akhir abad ke-19, setelah karya Karl Marx dan kolaboratornya Friedrich Engels, sosialisme telah menjadi wahana melawan kapitalisme dan menganjurkan sistem pascakapitalis yang didasarkan kepada kemahuan sesebuah masyarakat berhak milik ke atas pengusahaan hasil kekayaan diraih.^[20]^[21] Pada 1920-an, demokrasi sosial dan komunisme dominan di gerakan sosialis antarabangsa.^[22] Pada masa tersebut sosialisme muncul sebagai "gerakan sekular paling berpengaruh pada abad ke-20 di seluruh dunia. Sosialisme adalah ideologi politik (atau pandangan dunia), gerakan politik yang luas dan terpecah-pecah"^[23] dan ketika kebangkitan Kesatuan Soviet sebagai negara sosialis nominal pertama di dunia menyebabkan menyebarnya asosisasi sosialisme dengan model ekonomi Soviet, beberapa ahli ekonomi dan cendekiawan berpendapat bahawa model tersebut berfungsi sebagai bentuk kapitalisme negara,^[24]^[25]^[26] pentadbiran tidak terancang atau ekonomi komando.^[27]^[28]

Pengistilahan

Sosialisme menyerap Belanda: socialisme yang sendirinya pinjaman bahasa Perancis menerbitkan dari kata dasar social turunan kata sifat Latin socialis terbitan kata socius "sekutu".^[29] Penggunaan istilah asal socialisme digalang Pierre Leroux, seorang filsuf Perancis menulis dalam akhbar Le Globe in 1832^[30] memperjuangkan pemikiran Henri de Saint-Simon yang berpendapat bahawa kemiskinan dan kesengsaraan dialami masyarakat berikutan Revolusi Perindustrian berpunca daripada pegangan individualisme yang lebih mementingkan penjauhan diri dari masyarakat demi mengukuhkan jatidiri seseorang lalu menekankan perlumbaan mendapatkan saraan hidup sesama mereka.^[31] Hal ini turut tercermin dalam takrifan diberikan Kitab Vortaro (1923) sebagai teori "boeat linjapken keboeroekan-keboeroekan dalam systeem sekarang tentang persaingan dalam indoestri".^[32]

Perbezaan dari komunisme

Sekali imbas, perkataan "sosialisme" dan "komunisme" adakala ditafsirkan sesetengah pihak bertindih seolah-olah satu perkara yang sama. Tetapi pada hari ini dua perkataan ini bermaksud perkara yang berbeza. Kebanyakan orang yang bukan komunis merujuk komunisme sebagai Marxisme dan Leninisme iaitu idea-idea yang berasal dari Parti Bolshevik di Rusia lagi-lagi selepas Revolusi Bolshevik dipertahankan Vladimir Lenin.^[33] Hal ini turut dikukuhkan setelah Parti Buruh Demokratik Sosial Rusia dinamakan semula menjadi Parti Komunis Se-Rusia dengan pegangan yang mentafsirkan "komunisme" sebagai aliran sosialisme yang menurut teori-teori Bolshevisme, Leninisme dan Marxism–Leninisme.^[34]

Sejarah

Peloporan

Beberapa orang berpendapat Robert Owen yang berasal dari Wales, merupakan seorang sosialis yang pertama. Beliau dianggap sebagai pengasas gerakan koperasi di Britain.^[31]^[35]^[36] Beliau berkata pekerjalah yang sepatutnya menjadi tuan untuk syarikat yang mereka bekerja. Pekerja kemudiannya berkongsi keuntungan sesama mereka.

Antara sosialis terkenal adalah Karl Marx yang menulis buku The Communist Manifesto. Sosialis terkenal lain adalah Vladimir Lenin, James Connolly, Rosa Luxemburg, Fidel Castro, Muammar al-Gaddafi, Albert Einstein, Robert Mugabe, Ho Chi Minh dan John Lennon.

Selepas Perang Dunia Pertama dan Revolusi Rusia, sosialisme terbahagi kepada dua. Sesetengah golongan sosialis mengikut Lenin dan dipanggil komunis. Sesetengah yang lain pula percaya kepada sistem parlimen dan mereka ini dipanggil sosial demokrat. Sosial demokrat sangat tidak bersetuju dengan komunis tetapi antara ciri mereka ini adalah menyokong konsep negara kebajikan.

Jenis

Sistem sosialis dibahagi menjadi dua:^[37]

sosialisme bukan pasar - melibatkan penggantian pasaran faktor dan wang dengan kriteria teknis berdasarkan perhitungan yang dilakukan dalam bentuk barang lalu menghasilkan mekanisme ekonomi yang berfungsi sesuai dengan hukum ekonomi yang berbeza dari kapitalisme bertujuan untuk menghindari ketidakcekapan dan krisis yang secara tradisional berkait rapat dengan akumulasi kapital dan sistem profit^[46]
sosialisme pasar - mempertahankan penggunaan nilai wang, pasaran faktor; malah motif keuntungan yang, sehubungan dengan operasi perusahaan yang dimiliki secara sosial dan alokasi barang modal di antara pihak mereka. Keuntungan yang dihasilkan oleh perusahaan ini akan dikelola secara langsung oleh tenaga kerja dari masing-masing perusahaan, atau diberikan ke masyarakat luas dalam bentuk dividen sosial.^[47]^[48]^[49]

Lihat juga

Negara kebajikan

Rujukan

^ Sinclair, Upton (1 January 1918). Upton Sinclair's: A Monthly Magazine: for Social Justice, by Peaceful Means If Possible. Socialism, you see, is a bird with two wings. The definition is 'social ownership and democratic control of the instruments and means of production.'
^ Nove, Alec. "Socialism". New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, Second Edition (2008). A society may be defined as socialist if the major part of the means of production of goods and services is in some sense socially owned and operated, by state, socialised or cooperative enterprises. The practical issues of socialism comprise the relationships between management and workforce within the enterprise, the interrelationships between production units (plan versus markets), and, if the state owns and operates any part of the economy, who controls it and how.
^ Rosser, Mariana V. and J Barkley Jr. (23 July 2003). Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy. MIT Press. m/s. 53. ISBN 978-0-262-18234-8. Socialism is an economic system characterised by state or collective ownership of the means of production, land, and capital.
^ "What else does a socialist economic system involve? Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system" N. Scott Arnold. The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism : A Critical Study. Oxford University Press. 1998. p. 8
^ ^a ^b Busky, Donald F. (2000). Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Praeger. m/s. 2. ISBN 978-0-275-96886-1. Socialism may be defined as movements for social ownership and control of the economy. It is this idea that is the common element found in the many forms of socialism.
^ Bertrand Badie; Dirk Berg-Schlosser; Leonardo Morlino (2011). International Encyclopedia of Political Science. SAGE Publications, Inc. m/s. 2456. ISBN 978-1-4129-5963-6. Socialist systems are those regimes based on the economic and political theory of socialism, which advocates public ownership and cooperative management of the means of production and allocation of resources.
^ Zimbalist, Sherman and Brown, Andrew, Howard J. and Stuart (1988). Comparing Economic Systems: A Political-Economic Approach. Harcourt College Pub. m/s. 7. ISBN 978-0-15-512403-5. Pure socialism is defined as a system wherein all of the means of production are owned and run by the government and/or cooperative, nonprofit groups.
^ Brus, Wlodzimierz (2015). The Economics and Politics of Socialism. Routledge. m/s. 87. ISBN 978-0-415-86647-7. This alteration in the relationship between economy and politics is evident in the very definition of a socialist economic system. The basic characteristic of such a system is generally reckoned to be the predominance of the social ownership of the means of production.
^ Michie, Jonathan (2001). Readers Guide to the Social Sciences. Routledge. m/s. 1516. ISBN 978-1-57958-091-9. Just as private ownership defines capitalism, social ownership defines socialism. The essential characteristic of socialism in theory is that it destroys social hierarchies, and therefore leads to a politically and economically egalitarian society. Two closely related consequences follow. First, every individual is entitled to an equal ownership share that earns an aliquot part of the total social dividend…Second, in order to eliminate social hierarchy in the workplace, enterprises are run by those employed, and not by the representatives of private or state capital. Thus, the well-known historical tendency of the divorce between ownership and management is brought to an end. The society—i.e. every individual equally—owns capital and those who work are entitled to manage their own economic affairs.
^ ^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]
^ "2. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) any of various social or political theories or movements in which the common welfare is to be achieved through the establishment of a socialist economic system" "Socialism" at The Free dictionary
^ O'Hara, Phillip (September 2003). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2. Routledge. m/s. 71. ISBN 0-415-24187-1. In order of increasing decentralisation (at least) three forms of socialized ownership can be distinguished: state-owned firms, employee-owned (or socially) owned firms, and citizen ownership of equity.
^ ^a ^b Lamb & Docherty 2006, halaman 1
^ Arnold, Scott (1994). The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism: A Critical Study. Oxford University Press. m/s. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-19-508827-4. This term is harder to define, since socialists disagree among themselves about what socialism ‘really is.’ It would seem that everyone (socialists and nonsocialists alike) could at least agree that it is not a system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production…To be a socialist is not just to believe in certain ends, goals, values, or ideals. It also requires a belief in a certain institutional means to achieve those ends; whatever that may mean in positive terms, it certainly presupposes, at a minimum, the belief that these ends and values cannot be achieved in an economic system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production…Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system.
^ Hastings, Mason and Pyper, Adrian, Alistair and Hugh (21 December 2000). The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. Oxford University Press. m/s. 677. ISBN 978-0-19-860024-4. Socialists have always recognized that there are many possible forms of social ownership of which co-operative ownership is one...Nevertheless, socialism has throughout its history been inseparable from some form of common ownership. By its very nature it involves the abolition of private ownership of capital; bringing the means of production, distribution, and exchange into public ownership and control is central to its philosophy. It is difficult to see how it can survive, in theory or practice, without this central idea.
^ Le Quid. (dalam bahasa Perancis). 1995. m/s. 904.« Le socialisme a commencé par condamner les inégalités sociales et l’exploitation de l’homme par l’homme, et par demander que l’intérêt général prime en tout sur l’intérêt individuel. »
^ Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue française (dalam bahasa Perancis). 2007. m/s. 2382. « Doctrine d’organisation sociale qui entend faire prévaloir l’intérêt, le bien général, sur les intérêts particuliers, au moyen d’une organisation concertée (opposée à libéralisme) ; organisation sociale qui tend aux mêmes but dans un souci de progrès social. »
^ "In fact, socialism has been both centralist and local; organized from above and built from below; visionary and pragmatic; revolutionary and reformist; anti-state and statist; internationalist and nationalist; harnessed to political parties and shunning them; an outgrowth of trade unionism and independent of it; a feature of rich industrialized countries and poor peasant-based communities" Michael Newman. Socialism: A very Short introduction. Oxford University Press. 2005. p. 2.
^ Garrett Ward Sheldon. Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Fact on File. Inc. 2001. p. 280.
^ Gasper, Phillip (October 2005). The Communist Manifesto: a road map to history's most important political document. Haymarket Books. m/s. 24. ISBN 978-1-931859-25-7. As the nineteenth century progressed, "socialist" came to signify not only concern with the social question, but opposition to capitalism and support for some form of social ownership.
^ Anthony Giddens. Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics. 1998 edition. Cambridge, England, UK: Polity Press, 1994, 1998. p. 71.
^ "Chapter 1 looks at the foundations of the doctrine by examining the contribution made by various traditions of socialism in the period between the early 19th century and the aftermath of the First World War. The two forms that emerged as dominant by the early 1920s were social democracy and communism." Michael Newman. Socialism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. 2005. p. 5
^ George Thomas Kurian (ed). The Encyclopedia of Political Science CQ Press. Washington, DC 2011. p. 1554
^ 'State Capitalism' in the Soviet Union, M.C. Howard and J.E. King
^ Richard D. Wolff (27 June 2015). Socialism Means Abolishing the Distinction Between Bosses and Employees Diarkibkan 2018-03-11 di Wayback Machine. Truthout. Retrieved 9 July 2015.
^ Noam Chomsky (1986). The Soviet Union Versus Socialism. chomsky.info.
^ Wilhelm, John Howard (1985). "The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy". Soviet Studies. 37 (1): 118–30. doi:10.1080/09668138508411571.
^ Ellman, Michael (2007). "The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning". Dalam Estrin, Saul; Kołodko, Grzegorz W.; Uvalić, Milica (penyunting). Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. m/s. 22. ISBN 978-0-230-54697-4. In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the ‘administrative-command’ economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population...
^
Lihat:
- M. Philippa, F. Debrabandere, A. Quak, T. Schoonheim & N. van der Sijs, penyunting (2009). "socialisme (bepaalde maatschappijvorm)". Etymologisch Woordenboek van het Nederlands. Amsterdam – melalui EtymologieBank. socialisme zn. ‘leer van gelijkheid en sociale rechtvaardigheid’. Nnl. Een tweede leer die, in veler oog, niet minder door bevalligheid uitmunt; het Socialisme [1848; iWNT]. Internationaal neologisme, wrsch. voor het eerst gevormd in het Frans als socialisme [1831; TLF] en afgeleid van sociaal met het achtervoegsel → -isme.CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
- "Etymologie de social". Centre Nationale de Ressources de Textuelles et Lexicalles. 2012. Dicapai pada Feb 23, 2024. Empr. au lat. socialis « relatif aux alliés » et à l'époque impériale « accordé à la société », dér. de socius « compagnon, associé, allié »
^ Kołakowski, Leszek (2005). Main Currents of Marxism: The Founders, the Golden Age, the Breakdown. W.W. Norton & Company. m/s. 151. ISBN 978-0393-060546 – melalui Google Books.
^ ^a ^b Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, Margaret; Jacob, James R. (2009). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society – From 1600. 2 (ed. Ninth). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. m/s. 540. ISBN 978-1305445499. OCLC 1289795802.
^ Kwik Khing Djoen (1923). "socialism". Kitab Vortaro: Segala Perkatahan-Perkatahan Asing Jang Soeda Oemoem Di Goena Ken Di Dalem Soerat-Soerat Kabar Melayoe. Batavia: Sin Po. m/s. 282.
^ Steele, David (1992). From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court Publishing Company. m/s. 44–45. ISBN 978-0875484495. By 1888, the term 'socialism' was in general use among Marxists, who had dropped 'communism', now considered an old fashioned term meaning the same as 'socialism'. ... At the turn of the century, Marxists called themselves socialists. ... The definition of socialism and communism as successive stages was introduced into Marxist theory by Lenin in 1917. ... the new distinction was helpful to Lenin in defending his party against the traditional Marxist criticism that Russia was too backward for a socialist revolution.
^ Busky (2000), m/s. 9 harvp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBusky2000 (help): "In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism–Leninism."
^ Gregory, Paul; Stuart, Robert (2013). The Global Economy and its Economic Systems. South-Western College Publishing. m/s. 159. ISBN 978-1285-05535-0. Socialist writers of the nineteenth century proposed socialist arrangements for sharing as a response to the inequality and poverty of the industrial revolution. English socialist Robert Owen proposed that ownership and production take place in cooperatives, where all members shared equally. French socialist Henri Saint-Simon proposed to the contrary: socialism meant solving economic problems by means of state administration and planning, and taking advantage of new advances in science.
^ Russell, Bertrand (1972). A History of Western Philosophy. Touchstone. m/s. 781.
^ Kolb, Robert (19 October 2007). Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society, First Edition. SAGE Publications, Inc. m/s. 1345. ISBN 978-1412916523. There are many forms of socialism, all of which eliminate private ownership of capital and replace it with collective ownership. These many forms, all focused on advancing distributive justice for long-term social welfare, can be divided into two broad types of socialism: nonmarket and market.
^ Bockman, Johanna (2011). Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism. Stanford University Press. m/s. 20. ISBN 978-0-8047-7566-3. socialism would function without capitalist economic categories—such as money, prices, interest, profits and rent—and thus would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognised the need for money and prices at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism, socialists more commonly believed that the socialist economy would soon administratively mobilise the economy in physical units without the use of prices or money.
^ Steele, David Ramsay (1999). From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court. m/s. 175–77. ISBN 978-0-87548-449-5. Especially before the 1930s, many socialists and anti-socialists implicitly accepted some form of the following for the incompatibility of state-owned industry and factor markets. A market transaction is an exchange of property titles between two independent transactors. Thus internal market exchanges cease when all of industry is brought into the ownership of a single entity, whether the state or some other organization...the discussion applies equally to any form of social or community ownership, where the owning entity is conceived as a single organization or administration.
^ Is Socialism Dead? A Comment on Market Socialism and Basic Income Capitalism, by Arneson, Richard J. 1992. Ethics, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 485–511. April 1992: "Marxian socialism is often identified with the call to organize economic activity on a nonmarket basis."
^ Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists, by Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell. 1998. From "The Difference Between Marxism and Market Socialism" (pp. 61–63): "More fundamentally, a socialist society must be one in which the economy is run on the principle of the direct satisfaction of human needs...Exchange-value, prices and so money are goals in themselves in a capitalist society or in any market. There is no necessary connection between the accumulation of capital or sums of money and human welfare. Under conditions of backwardness, the spur of money and the accumulation of wealth has led to a massive growth in industry and technology ... It seems an odd argument to say that a capitalist will only be efficient in producing use-value of a good quality when trying to make more money than the next capitalist. It would seem easier to rely on the planning of use-values in a rational way, which because there is no duplication, would be produced more cheaply and be of a higher quality."
^ The Economics of Feasible Socialism Revisited, by Nove, Alexander. 1991. p. 13: "Under socialism, by definition, it (private property and factor markets) would be eliminated. There would then be something like ‘scientific management’, ‘the science of socially organized production’, but it would not be economics."
^ Kotz, David M. "Socialism and Capitalism: Are They Qualitatively Different Socioeconomic Systems?" (PDF). University of Massachusetts. Dicapai pada 19 February 2011. "This understanding of socialism was held not just by revolutionary Marxist socialists but also by evolutionary socialists, Christian socialists, and even anarchists. At that time, there was also wide agreement about the basic institutions of the future socialist system: public ownership instead of private ownership of the means of production, economic planning instead of market forces, production for use instead of for profit."
^ Toward a Socialism for the Future, in the Wake of the Demise of the Socialism of the Past, by Weisskopf, Thomas E. 1992. Review of Radical Political Economics, Vol. 24, No. 3–4, p. 2: "Socialism has historically been committed to the improvement of people's material standards of living. Indeed, in earlier days many socialists saw the promotion of improving material living standards as the primary basis for socialism's claim to superiority over capitalism, for socialism was to overcome the irrationality and inefficiency seen as endemic to a capitalist system of economic organization."
^ Prychito, David L. (2002). Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism. Edward Elgar Publishing. m/s. 12. ISBN 978-1-84064-519-4. Socialism is a system based upon de facto public or social ownership of the means of production, the abolition of a hierarchical division of labor in the enterprise, a consciously organized social division of labor. Under socialism, money, competitive pricing, and profit-loss accounting would be destroyed.
^ ^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45]
^ Social Dividend versus Basic Income Guarantee in Market Socialism, by Marangos, John. 2004. International Journal of Political Economy, vol. 34, no. 3, Fall 2004.
^ O'Hara, Phillip (2000). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2. Routledge. m/s. 71. ISBN 978-0-415-24187-8. Market socialism is the general designation for a number of models of economic systems. On the one hand, the market mechanism is utilized to distribute economic output, to organize production and to allocate factor inputs. On the other hand, the economic surplus accrues to society at large rather than to a class of private (capitalist) owners, through some form of collective, public or social ownership of capital.
^ Pierson, Christopher (1995). Socialism After Communism: The New Market Socialism. Pennsylvania State Univ Press. m/s. 96. ISBN 978-0-271-01478-4. At the heart of the market socialist model is the abolition of the large-scale private ownership of capital and its replacement by some form of ‘social ownership’. Even the most conservative accounts of market socialism insist that this abolition of large-scale holdings of private capital is essential. This requirement is fully consistent with the market socialists’ general claim that the vices of market capitalism lie not with the institutions of the market but with (the consequences of) the private ownership of capital...

Sumber

Busky, Donald F. (2000). Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 978-0275968861.
Lamb, Peter; Docherty, J. C. (2006). Historical Dictionary of Socialism (ed. 2nd). Lanham: The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810855601.

Pautan luar

Suara Sosialisme Malaysia: Bahan bacaan sosialis dalam bahasa Melayu

[1] Sinclair, Upton (1 January 1918). Upton Sinclair's: A Monthly Magazine: for Social Justice, by Peaceful Means If Possible. Socialism, you see, is a bird with two wings. The definition is 'social ownership and democratic control of the instruments and means of production.'

[Nove-2] Nove, Alec. "Socialism". New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, Second Edition (2008). A society may be defined as socialist if the major part of the means of production of goods and services is in some sense socially owned and operated, by state, socialised or cooperative enterprises. The practical issues of socialism comprise the relationships between management and workforce within the enterprise, the interrelationships between production units (plan versus markets), and, if the state owns and operates any part of the economy, who controls it and how.

[3] Rosser, Mariana V. and J Barkley Jr. (23 July 2003). Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy. MIT Press. m/s. 53. ISBN 978-0-262-18234-8. Socialism is an economic system characterised by state or collective ownership of the means of production, land, and capital.

[N._Scott_Arnold_1998._pg._8-4] "What else does a socialist economic system involve? Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system" N. Scott Arnold. The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism : A Critical Study. Oxford University Press. 1998. p. 8

[Busky1-5] Busky, Donald F. (2000). Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Praeger. m/s. 2. ISBN 978-0-275-96886-1. Socialism may be defined as movements for social ownership and control of the economy. It is this idea that is the common element found in the many forms of socialism.

[6] Bertrand Badie; Dirk Berg-Schlosser; Leonardo Morlino (2011). International Encyclopedia of Political Science. SAGE Publications, Inc. m/s. 2456. ISBN 978-1-4129-5963-6. Socialist systems are those regimes based on the economic and political theory of socialism, which advocates public ownership and cooperative management of the means of production and allocation of resources.

[7] Zimbalist, Sherman and Brown, Andrew, Howard J. and Stuart (1988). Comparing Economic Systems: A Political-Economic Approach. Harcourt College Pub. m/s. 7. ISBN 978-0-15-512403-5. Pure socialism is defined as a system wherein all of the means of production are owned and run by the government and/or cooperative, nonprofit groups.

[8] Brus, Wlodzimierz (2015). The Economics and Politics of Socialism. Routledge. m/s. 87. ISBN 978-0-415-86647-7. This alteration in the relationship between economy and politics is evident in the very definition of a socialist economic system. The basic characteristic of such a system is generally reckoned to be the predominance of the social ownership of the means of production.

[9] Michie, Jonathan (2001). Readers Guide to the Social Sciences. Routledge. m/s. 1516. ISBN 978-1-57958-091-9. Just as private ownership defines capitalism, social ownership defines socialism. The essential characteristic of socialism in theory is that it destroys social hierarchies, and therefore leads to a politically and economically egalitarian society. Two closely related consequences follow. First, every individual is entitled to an equal ownership share that earns an aliquot part of the total social dividend…Second, in order to eliminate social hierarchy in the workplace, enterprises are run by those employed, and not by the representatives of private or state capital. Thus, the well-known historical tendency of the divorce between ownership and management is brought to an end. The society—i.e. every individual equally—owns capital and those who work are entitled to manage their own economic affairs.

[10] [1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]

[Socialism_at_The_Free_dictionary-11] "2. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) any of various social or political theories or movements in which the common welfare is to be achieved through the establishment of a socialist economic system" "Socialism" at The Free dictionary

[12] O'Hara, Phillip (September 2003). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2. Routledge. m/s. 71. ISBN 0-415-24187-1. In order of increasing decentralisation (at least) three forms of socialized ownership can be distinguished: state-owned firms, employee-owned (or socially) owned firms, and citizen ownership of equity.

[Peter_Lamb_2006._p._1-13] Lamb & Docherty 2006, halaman 1

[14] Arnold, Scott (1994). The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism: A Critical Study. Oxford University Press. m/s. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-19-508827-4. This term is harder to define, since socialists disagree among themselves about what socialism ‘really is.’ It would seem that everyone (socialists and nonsocialists alike) could at least agree that it is not a system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production…To be a socialist is not just to believe in certain ends, goals, values, or ideals. It also requires a belief in a certain institutional means to achieve those ends; whatever that may mean in positive terms, it certainly presupposes, at a minimum, the belief that these ends and values cannot be achieved in an economic system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production…Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system.

[15] Hastings, Mason and Pyper, Adrian, Alistair and Hugh (21 December 2000). The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. Oxford University Press. m/s. 677. ISBN 978-0-19-860024-4. Socialists have always recognized that there are many possible forms of social ownership of which co-operative ownership is one...Nevertheless, socialism has throughout its history been inseparable from some form of common ownership. By its very nature it involves the abolition of private ownership of capital; bringing the means of production, distribution, and exchange into public ownership and control is central to its philosophy. It is difficult to see how it can survive, in theory or practice, without this central idea.

[16] Le Quid. (dalam bahasa Perancis). 1995. m/s. 904.« Le socialisme a commencé par condamner les inégalités sociales et l’exploitation de l’homme par l’homme, et par demander que l’intérêt général prime en tout sur l’intérêt individuel. »

[17] Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue française (dalam bahasa Perancis). 2007. m/s. 2382. « Doctrine d’organisation sociale qui entend faire prévaloir l’intérêt, le bien général, sur les intérêts particuliers, au moyen d’une organisation concertée (opposée à libéralisme) ; organisation sociale qui tend aux mêmes but dans un souci de progrès social. »

[18] "In fact, socialism has been both centralist and local; organized from above and built from below; visionary and pragmatic; revolutionary and reformist; anti-state and statist; internationalist and nationalist; harnessed to political parties and shunning them; an outgrowth of trade unionism and independent of it; a feature of rich industrialized countries and poor peasant-based communities" Michael Newman. Socialism: A very Short introduction. Oxford University Press. 2005. p. 2.

[19] Garrett Ward Sheldon. Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Fact on File. Inc. 2001. p. 280.

[20] Gasper, Phillip (October 2005). The Communist Manifesto: a road map to history's most important political document. Haymarket Books. m/s. 24. ISBN 978-1-931859-25-7. As the nineteenth century progressed, "socialist" came to signify not only concern with the social question, but opposition to capitalism and support for some form of social ownership.

[Anthony_Giddens_1994,_p._71-21] Anthony Giddens. Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics. 1998 edition. Cambridge, England, UK: Polity Press, 1994, 1998. p. 71.

[22] "Chapter 1 looks at the foundations of the doctrine by examining the contribution made by various traditions of socialism in the period between the early 19th century and the aftermath of the First World War. The two forms that emerged as dominant by the early 1920s were social democracy and communism." Michael Newman. Socialism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. 2005. p. 5

[23] George Thomas Kurian (ed). The Encyclopedia of Political Science CQ Press. Washington, DC 2011. p. 1554

[24] 'State Capitalism' in the Soviet Union, M.C. Howard and J.E. King

[25] Richard D. Wolff (27 June 2015). Socialism Means Abolishing the Distinction Between Bosses and Employees Diarkibkan 2018-03-11 di Wayback Machine. Truthout. Retrieved 9 July 2015.

[26] Noam Chomsky (1986). The Soviet Union Versus Socialism. chomsky.info.

[The_Soviet_Union_Has_an_Administered,_Not_a_Planned,_Economy,_1985-27] Wilhelm, John Howard (1985). "The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy". Soviet Studies. 37 (1): 118–30. doi:10.1080/09668138508411571.

[28] Ellman, Michael (2007). "The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning". Dalam Estrin, Saul; Kołodko, Grzegorz W.; Uvalić, Milica (penyunting). Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. m/s. 22. ISBN 978-0-230-54697-4. In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the ‘administrative-command’ economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population...

[29] Lihat:
M. Philippa, F. Debrabandere, A. Quak, T. Schoonheim & N. van der Sijs, penyunting (2009). "socialisme (bepaalde maatschappijvorm)". Etymologisch Woordenboek van het Nederlands. Amsterdam – melalui EtymologieBank. socialisme zn. ‘leer van gelijkheid en sociale rechtvaardigheid’. Nnl. Een tweede leer die, in veler oog, niet minder door bevalligheid uitmunt; het Socialisme [1848; iWNT]. Internationaal neologisme, wrsch. voor het eerst gevormd in het Frans als socialisme [1831; TLF] en afgeleid van sociaal met het achtervoegsel → -isme.CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)

"Etymologie de social". Centre Nationale de Ressources de Textuelles et Lexicalles. 2012. Dicapai pada Feb 23, 2024. Empr. au lat. socialis « relatif aux alliés » et à l'époque impériale « accordé à la société », dér. de socius « compagnon, associé, allié »

[30] M. Philippa, F. Debrabandere, A. Quak, T. Schoonheim & N. van der Sijs, penyunting (2009). "socialisme (bepaalde maatschappijvorm)". Etymologisch Woordenboek van het Nederlands. Amsterdam – melalui EtymologieBank. socialisme zn. ‘leer van gelijkheid en sociale rechtvaardigheid’. Nnl. Een tweede leer die, in veler oog, niet minder door bevalligheid uitmunt; het Socialisme [1848; iWNT]. Internationaal neologisme, wrsch. voor het eerst gevormd in het Frans als socialisme [1831; TLF] en afgeleid van sociaal met het achtervoegsel → -isme.CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)

[31] "Etymologie de social". Centre Nationale de Ressources de Textuelles et Lexicalles. 2012. Dicapai pada Feb 23, 2024. Empr. au lat. socialis « relatif aux alliés » et à l'époque impériale « accordé à la société », dér. de socius « compagnon, associé, allié »

[Kołakowski2005-30] Kołakowski, Leszek (2005). Main Currents of Marxism: The Founders, the Golden Age, the Breakdown. W.W. Norton & Company. m/s. 151. ISBN 978-0393-060546 – melalui Google Books.

[Marvin_Perry_1600,_p._540-31] Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, Margaret; Jacob, James R. (2009). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society – From 1600. 2 (ed. Ninth). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. m/s. 540. ISBN 978-1305445499. OCLC 1289795802.

[32] Kwik Khing Djoen (1923). "socialism". Kitab Vortaro: Segala Perkatahan-Perkatahan Asing Jang Soeda Oemoem Di Goena Ken Di Dalem Soerat-Soerat Kabar Melayoe. Batavia: Sin Po. m/s. 282.

[Steele_1992_44-45-33] Steele, David (1992). From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court Publishing Company. m/s. 44–45. ISBN 978-0875484495. By 1888, the term 'socialism' was in general use among Marxists, who had dropped 'communism', now considered an old fashioned term meaning the same as 'socialism'. ... At the turn of the century, Marxists called themselves socialists. ... The definition of socialism and communism as successive stages was introduced into Marxist theory by Lenin in 1917. ... the new distinction was helpful to Lenin in defending his party against the traditional Marxist criticism that Russia was too backward for a socialist revolution.

[34] Busky (2000), m/s. 9 harvp error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBusky2000 (help): "In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism–Leninism."

[35] Gregory, Paul; Stuart, Robert (2013). The Global Economy and its Economic Systems. South-Western College Publishing. m/s. 159. ISBN 978-1285-05535-0. Socialist writers of the nineteenth century proposed socialist arrangements for sharing as a response to the inequality and poverty of the industrial revolution. English socialist Robert Owen proposed that ownership and production take place in cooperatives, where all members shared equally. French socialist Henri Saint-Simon proposed to the contrary: socialism meant solving economic problems by means of state administration and planning, and taking advantage of new advances in science.

[36] Russell, Bertrand (1972). A History of Western Philosophy. Touchstone. m/s. 781.

[Kolb-37] Kolb, Robert (19 October 2007). Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society, First Edition. SAGE Publications, Inc. m/s. 1345. ISBN 978-1412916523. There are many forms of socialism, all of which eliminate private ownership of capital and replace it with collective ownership. These many forms, all focused on advancing distributive justice for long-term social welfare, can be divided into two broad types of socialism: nonmarket and market.

[38] Bockman, Johanna (2011). Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism. Stanford University Press. m/s. 20. ISBN 978-0-8047-7566-3. socialism would function without capitalist economic categories—such as money, prices, interest, profits and rent—and thus would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognised the need for money and prices at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism, socialists more commonly believed that the socialist economy would soon administratively mobilise the economy in physical units without the use of prices or money.

[39] Steele, David Ramsay (1999). From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court. m/s. 175–77. ISBN 978-0-87548-449-5. Especially before the 1930s, many socialists and anti-socialists implicitly accepted some form of the following for the incompatibility of state-owned industry and factor markets. A market transaction is an exchange of property titles between two independent transactors. Thus internal market exchanges cease when all of industry is brought into the ownership of a single entity, whether the state or some other organization...the discussion applies equally to any form of social or community ownership, where the owning entity is conceived as a single organization or administration.

[40] Is Socialism Dead? A Comment on Market Socialism and Basic Income Capitalism, by Arneson, Richard J. 1992. Ethics, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 485–511. April 1992: "Marxian socialism is often identified with the call to organize economic activity on a nonmarket basis."

[41] Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists, by Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell. 1998. From "The Difference Between Marxism and Market Socialism" (pp. 61–63): "More fundamentally, a socialist society must be one in which the economy is run on the principle of the direct satisfaction of human needs...Exchange-value, prices and so money are goals in themselves in a capitalist society or in any market. There is no necessary connection between the accumulation of capital or sums of money and human welfare. Under conditions of backwardness, the spur of money and the accumulation of wealth has led to a massive growth in industry and technology ... It seems an odd argument to say that a capitalist will only be efficient in producing use-value of a good quality when trying to make more money than the next capitalist. It would seem easier to rely on the planning of use-values in a rational way, which because there is no duplication, would be produced more cheaply and be of a higher quality."

[42] The Economics of Feasible Socialism Revisited, by Nove, Alexander. 1991. p. 13: "Under socialism, by definition, it (private property and factor markets) would be eliminated. There would then be something like ‘scientific management’, ‘the science of socially organized production’, but it would not be economics."

[43] Kotz, David M. "Socialism and Capitalism: Are They Qualitatively Different Socioeconomic Systems?" (PDF). University of Massachusetts. Dicapai pada 19 February 2011. "This understanding of socialism was held not just by revolutionary Marxist socialists but also by evolutionary socialists, Christian socialists, and even anarchists. At that time, there was also wide agreement about the basic institutions of the future socialist system: public ownership instead of private ownership of the means of production, economic planning instead of market forces, production for use instead of for profit."

[Toward_a_Socialism_for_the_Future,_in_the_Wake_of_the_Demise_of_the_Socialism_of_the_Past_1-44] Toward a Socialism for the Future, in the Wake of the Demise of the Socialism of the Past, by Weisskopf, Thomas E. 1992. Review of Radical Political Economics, Vol. 24, No. 3–4, p. 2: "Socialism has historically been committed to the improvement of people's material standards of living. Indeed, in earlier days many socialists saw the promotion of improving material living standards as the primary basis for socialism's claim to superiority over capitalism, for socialism was to overcome the irrationality and inefficiency seen as endemic to a capitalist system of economic organization."

[45] Prychito, David L. (2002). Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism. Edward Elgar Publishing. m/s. 12. ISBN 978-1-84064-519-4. Socialism is a system based upon de facto public or social ownership of the means of production, the abolition of a hierarchical division of labor in the enterprise, a consciously organized social division of labor. Under socialism, money, competitive pricing, and profit-loss accounting would be destroyed.

[46] [38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45]

[Social_Dividend_versus_Basic_Income_Guarantee_in_Market_Socialism,_2004-47] Social Dividend versus Basic Income Guarantee in Market Socialism, by Marangos, John. 2004. International Journal of Political Economy, vol. 34, no. 3, Fall 2004.

[48] O'Hara, Phillip (2000). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2. Routledge. m/s. 71. ISBN 978-0-415-24187-8. Market socialism is the general designation for a number of models of economic systems. On the one hand, the market mechanism is utilized to distribute economic output, to organize production and to allocate factor inputs. On the other hand, the economic surplus accrues to society at large rather than to a class of private (capitalist) owners, through some form of collective, public or social ownership of capital.

[49] Pierson, Christopher (1995). Socialism After Communism: The New Market Socialism. Pennsylvania State Univ Press. m/s. 96. ISBN 978-0-271-01478-4. At the heart of the market socialist model is the abolition of the large-scale private ownership of capital and its replacement by some form of ‘social ownership’. Even the most conservative accounts of market socialism insist that this abolition of large-scale holdings of private capital is essential. This requirement is fully consistent with the market socialists’ general claim that the vices of market capitalism lie not with the institutions of the market but with (the consequences of) the private ownership of capital...

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