Perm (geologi)

Perm
Perm
298.9 ± 0.15 – 251.902 ± 0.024 Ma PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N
	Rekonstruksi benua-benua Bumi ketika pertengahan tempoh Perm, sekitar 275 Ma.
Kronologi
	Templat:Permian graphical timeline
Etimologi
Keformalan nama	Formal
Maklumat kegunaan
Kegunaan tempatan	Global (ICS)
Skala masa yang digunakan	Skala masa ICS
Takrifan
Unit kronologi	Tempoh
Unit stratigrafi	Sistem
Keformalan jangka masa	Formal
Takrif sempadan bawah	Datum kewujudan pertama (DKP) konodon Streptognathodus isolatus dalam morfotip kronoklin Streptognathodus wabaunsensis.
Sempadan bawah GSSP	Aidaralash, Pergunungan Ural, Kazakhstan; 50°14′45″N 57°53′29″E / 50.2458°N 57.8914°E
Tarikh ratifikasi sempadan bawah GSSP	1996
Takrif sempadan atas	FAD konodon Hindeodus parvus.
Sempadan atas GSSP	Meishan, Zhejiang, China; 31°04′47″N 119°42′21″E / 31.0798°N 119.7058°E
Tarikh ratifikasi sempadan atas GSSP	2001

Perm^[3] ialah nama untuk tempoh geologi dan sistem stratigrafi yang menjangkau 47 juta tahun dari akhir Tempoh Karbon pada 298.9 juta tahun dahulu (jtd) sehingga ke permulaan Tempoh Trias pada 251.902 jtd. Ia merupakan tempoh terakhir Era Paleozoik; kerana Tempoh Trias berikut tergolong dalam Era Mesozoik. Konsep tempoh Perm ini telah diperkenalkan pada tahun 1841 oleh ahli geologi Sir Roderick Murchison, yang menamakannya sempena wilayah Perm di Rusia.^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]

Tempoh Perm ini menyaksikan percambahan kepelbagaian dua kumpulan amniot, yakni sinapsida dan sauropsida (reptilia). Dunia pada masa itu didominasi dengan superbenua Pangea, yang telah terbentuk akibat perlanggaran benua Euramerika dan benua Gondwana semasa tempoh Karbon. Pangea dikelilingi oleh superlautan Panthalassa. Keruntuhan hutan tropika tempoh Karbon tersebut meninggalkan kawasan padang pasir yang luas di pedalaman benua.^[9] Amniot, yang dapat mengatasi keadaan yang lebih kering ini dengan lebih baik, bangkit dan mendominasi menggantikan leluhur amfibianya.

Ramai pengarang mengiktiraf sekurang-kurangnya tiga,^[10] dan mungkin empat^[11] peristiwa kepupusan pada tempoh Perm. Penghujung tempoh Perm Awal (Cisural) menyaksikan pusing ganti fauna yang besar, dengan kebanyakan keturunan sinapsid "pelikosaur" primitif menjadi pupus, digantikan dengan terapsida yang lebih maju. Perakhiran Peringkat Kapitan pada Tempoh Perm telah ditandai dengan peristiwa kepupusan besar-besaran peringkat Kapitan,^[12] yang dikaitkan dengan letusan Perangkap Emeishan. Tempoh Perm (bersama dengan era Paleozoik) berakhir dengan peristiwa kepupusan Perm–Trias, yakni kepupusan besar-besaran yang terbesar dalam sejarah Bumi (yang merupakan kepupusan terakhir daripada tiga atau empat krisis yang berlaku pada zaman Perm), yang melibatkan kematian hampir 81% spesies lautan dan 70% spesies daratan, dan kepupusan ini dikaitkan dengan letusan Perangkap Siberia. Ia mengambil masa yang lama sehingga ke tempoh Trias untuk kehidupan pulih daripada malapetaka ini;^[13]^[14]^[15] dengan ekosistem di daratan mengambil masa 30 juta tahun untuk pulih.^[16]

Rujukan

^ Davydov, Vladimir; Glenister, Brian; Spinosa, Claude; Ritter, Scott; Chernykh, V.; Wardlaw, B.; Snyder, W. (March 1998). "Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System" (PDF). Episodes. 21: 11–18. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/1998/v21i1/003. Diarkibkan (PDF) daripada yang asal pada 4 July 2021. Dicapai pada 7 December 2020.
^ Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 24 (2): 102–114. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004. Diarkibkan (PDF) daripada yang asal pada 28 August 2021. Dicapai pada 8 December 2020.
^ "Permian". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House.
^ Olroyd, D.R. (2005). "Famous Geologists: Murchison". Dalam Selley, R.C.; Cocks, L.R.M.; Plimer, I.R. (penyunting). Encyclopedia of Geology, volume 2. Amsterdam: Elsevier. m/s. 213. ISBN 0-12-636380-3.
^ Ogg, J.G.; Ogg, G.; Gradstein, F.M. (2016). A Concise Geologic Time Scale: 2016. Amsterdam: Elsevier. m/s. 115. ISBN 978-0-444-63771-0.
^ Murchison, R.I.; de Verneuil, E.; von Keyserling, A. (1842). On the Geological Structure of the Central and Southern Regions of Russia in Europe, and of the Ural Mountains. London: Richard and John E. Taylor. m/s. 14. Permian System. (Zechstein of Germany — Magnesian limestone of England)—Some introductory remarks explain why the authors have ventured to use a new name in reference to a group of rocks which, as a whole, they consider to be on the parallel of the Zechstein of Germany and the magnesian limestone of England. They do so, not merely because a portion of deposits has long been known by the name "grits of Perm", but because, being enormously developed in the governments of Perm and Orenburg, they there assume a great variety of lithological features ...
^ Murchison, R.I.; de Verneuil, E.; von Keyserling, A. (1845). Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains. Vol. 1: Geology. London: John Murray. m/s. 138–139. ...Convincing ourselves in the field, that these strata were so distinguished as to constitute a system, connected with the carboniferous rocks on the one hand, and independent of the Trias on the other, we ventured to designate them by a geographical term, derived from the ancient kingdom of Permia, within and around whose precincts the necessary evidences had been obtained. ... For these reasons, then, we were led to abandon both the German and British nomenclature, and to prefer a geographical name, taken from the region in which the beds are loaded with fossils of an independent and intermediary character; and where the order of superposition is clear, the lower strata of the group being seen to rest upon the Carboniferous rocks.
^ Verneuil, E. (1842). "Correspondance et communications". Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France. 13: 11–14. Le nom de Système Permien, nom dérivé de l'ancien royaume de Permie, aujourd'hui gouvernement de Perm, donc ce dépôt occupe une large part, semblerait assez lui convener ...
^ Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J.; Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica". Geology. 38 (12): 1079–1082. Bibcode:2010Geo....38.1079S. doi:10.1130/G31182.1.
^ Didier, Gilles; Laurin, Michel (9 December 2021). "Distributions of extinction times from fossil ages and tree topologies: the example of mid-Permian synapsid extinctions". PeerJ. 9: e12577. doi:10.7717/peerj.12577. PMC 8667717 Check |pmc= value (bantuan). PMID 34966586 Check |pmid= value (bantuan).
^ Lucas, S.G. (July 2017). "Permian tetrapod extinction events". Earth-Science Reviews. 170: 31–60. Bibcode:2017ESRv..170...31L. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.04.008.
^ Day, Michael O.; Ramezani, Jahandar; Bowring, Samuel A.; Sadler, Peter M.; Erwin, Douglas H.; Abdala, Fernando; Rubidge, Bruce S. (22 July 2015). "When and how did the terrestrial mid-Permian mass extinction occur? Evidence from the tetrapod record of the Karoo Basin, South Africa". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 282 (1811): 20150834. doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.0834. PMC 4528552. PMID 26156768.
^ Zhao, Xiaoming; Tong, Jinnan; Yao, Huazhou; Niu, Zhijun; Luo, Mao; Huang, Yunfei; Song, Haijun (1 July 2015). "Early Triassic trace fossils from the Three Gorges area of South China: Implications for the recovery of benthic ecosystems following the Permian–Triassic extinction". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 429: 100–116. Bibcode:2015PPP...429..100Z. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.04.008. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 21 January 2023. Dicapai pada 20 January 2023.
^ Martindale, Rowan C.; Foster, William J.; Velledits, Felicitász (1 January 2019). "The survival, recovery, and diversification of metazoan reef ecosystems following the end-Permian mass extinction event". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 513: 100–115. Bibcode:2019PPP...513..100M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.08.014. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 1 December 2022. Dicapai pada 2 December 2022.
^ "GeoKansas--Geotopics--Mass Extinctions". ku.edu. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2012-09-20. Dicapai pada 2009-11-05.
^ Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1636): 759–65. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.

Bacaan lanjut

Ogg, Jim (June 2004). "Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)". stratigraphy.org. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2004-02-19. Dicapai pada April 30, 2006.

Pautan luar

University of California offers a more modern Permian stratigraphy
Classic Permian strata in the Glass Mountains of the Permian Basin
"International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)". Geologic Time Scale 2004. Dicapai pada September 19, 2005.
Examples of Permian Fossils
Permian (chronostratigraphy scale)
Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke (2012), "Extinguishing a Permian World", Geology, 40 (3): 287–288, Bibcode:2012Geo....40..287S, doi:10.1130/focus032012.1

[1] Davydov, Vladimir; Glenister, Brian; Spinosa, Claude; Ritter, Scott; Chernykh, V.; Wardlaw, B.; Snyder, W. (March 1998). "Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System" (PDF). Episodes. 21: 11–18. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/1998/v21i1/003. Diarkibkan (PDF) daripada yang asal pada 4 July 2021. Dicapai pada 7 December 2020.

[2] Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 24 (2): 102–114. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004. Diarkibkan (PDF) daripada yang asal pada 28 August 2021. Dicapai pada 8 December 2020.

[3] "Permian". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House.

[EncyclopediaGeology2005-4] Olroyd, D.R. (2005). "Famous Geologists: Murchison". Dalam Selley, R.C.; Cocks, L.R.M.; Plimer, I.R. (penyunting). Encyclopedia of Geology, volume 2. Amsterdam: Elsevier. m/s. 213. ISBN 0-12-636380-3.

[Ogg_etal_2016-5] Ogg, J.G.; Ogg, G.; Gradstein, F.M. (2016). A Concise Geologic Time Scale: 2016. Amsterdam: Elsevier. m/s. 115. ISBN 978-0-444-63771-0.

[Murchison_etal_1842-6] Murchison, R.I.; de Verneuil, E.; von Keyserling, A. (1842). On the Geological Structure of the Central and Southern Regions of Russia in Europe, and of the Ural Mountains. London: Richard and John E. Taylor. m/s. 14. Permian System. (Zechstein of Germany — Magnesian limestone of England)—Some introductory remarks explain why the authors have ventured to use a new name in reference to a group of rocks which, as a whole, they consider to be on the parallel of the Zechstein of Germany and the magnesian limestone of England. They do so, not merely because a portion of deposits has long been known by the name "grits of Perm", but because, being enormously developed in the governments of Perm and Orenburg, they there assume a great variety of lithological features ...

[Murchison_etal_1845-7] Murchison, R.I.; de Verneuil, E.; von Keyserling, A. (1845). Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains. Vol. 1: Geology. London: John Murray. m/s. 138–139. ...Convincing ourselves in the field, that these strata were so distinguished as to constitute a system, connected with the carboniferous rocks on the one hand, and independent of the Trias on the other, we ventured to designate them by a geographical term, derived from the ancient kingdom of Permia, within and around whose precincts the necessary evidences had been obtained. ... For these reasons, then, we were led to abandon both the German and British nomenclature, and to prefer a geographical name, taken from the region in which the beds are loaded with fossils of an independent and intermediary character; and where the order of superposition is clear, the lower strata of the group being seen to rest upon the Carboniferous rocks.

[Verneuil_1842-8] Verneuil, E. (1842). "Correspondance et communications". Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France. 13: 11–14. Le nom de Système Permien, nom dérivé de l'ancien royaume de Permie, aujourd'hui gouvernement de Perm, donc ce dépôt occupe une large part, semblerait assez lui convener ...

[SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse-9] Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J.; Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica". Geology. 38 (12): 1079–1082. Bibcode:2010Geo....38.1079S. doi:10.1130/G31182.1.

[Didier&Laurin_2021-10] Didier, Gilles; Laurin, Michel (9 December 2021). "Distributions of extinction times from fossil ages and tree topologies: the example of mid-Permian synapsid extinctions". PeerJ. 9: e12577. doi:10.7717/peerj.12577. PMC 8667717 Check |pmc= value (bantuan). PMID 34966586 Check |pmid= value (bantuan).

[11] Lucas, S.G. (July 2017). "Permian tetrapod extinction events". Earth-Science Reviews. 170: 31–60. Bibcode:2017ESRv..170...31L. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.04.008.

[Day-2015-12] Day, Michael O.; Ramezani, Jahandar; Bowring, Samuel A.; Sadler, Peter M.; Erwin, Douglas H.; Abdala, Fernando; Rubidge, Bruce S. (22 July 2015). "When and how did the terrestrial mid-Permian mass extinction occur? Evidence from the tetrapod record of the Karoo Basin, South Africa". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 282 (1811): 20150834. doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.0834. PMC 4528552. PMID 26156768.

[13] Zhao, Xiaoming; Tong, Jinnan; Yao, Huazhou; Niu, Zhijun; Luo, Mao; Huang, Yunfei; Song, Haijun (1 July 2015). "Early Triassic trace fossils from the Three Gorges area of South China: Implications for the recovery of benthic ecosystems following the Permian–Triassic extinction". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 429: 100–116. Bibcode:2015PPP...429..100Z. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.04.008. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 21 January 2023. Dicapai pada 20 January 2023.

[MartindaleEtAl2019-14] Martindale, Rowan C.; Foster, William J.; Velledits, Felicitász (1 January 2019). "The survival, recovery, and diversification of metazoan reef ecosystems following the end-Permian mass extinction event". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 513: 100–115. Bibcode:2019PPP...513..100M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.08.014. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 1 December 2022. Dicapai pada 2 December 2022.

[kgs.ku.edu-15] "GeoKansas--Geotopics--Mass Extinctions". ku.edu. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2012-09-20. Dicapai pada 2009-11-05.

[SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-16] Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1636): 759–65. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.

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Perm
298.9 ± 0.15 – 251.902 ± 0.024 Ma PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N
Rekonstruksi benua-benua Bumi ketika pertengahan tempoh Perm, sekitar 275 Ma.
Kronologi
Templat:Permian graphical timeline
Etimologi
Keformalan nama	Formal
Maklumat kegunaan
Kegunaan tempatan	Global (ICS)
Skala masa yang digunakan	Skala masa ICS
Takrifan
Unit kronologi	Tempoh
Unit stratigrafi	Sistem
Keformalan jangka masa	Formal
Takrif sempadan bawah	Datum kewujudan pertama (DKP) konodon Streptognathodus isolatus dalam morfotip kronoklin Streptognathodus wabaunsensis.
Sempadan bawah GSSP	Aidaralash, Pergunungan Ural, Kazakhstan 50°14′45″N 57°53′29″E / 50.2458°N 57.8914°E / 50.2458; 57.8914
Tarikh ratifikasi sempadan bawah GSSP	1996^[1]
Takrif sempadan atas	FAD konodon Hindeodus parvus.
Sempadan atas GSSP	Meishan, Zhejiang, China 31°04′47″N 119°42′21″E / 31.0798°N 119.7058°E / 31.0798; 119.7058
Tarikh ratifikasi sempadan atas GSSP	2001^[2]