Bahasa-bahasa Jerman - Wikipedia Bahasa Melayu, ensiklopedia bebas

Bahasa Jermanik
Bahasa Jermanik
Bahasa Teutonik
Taburan; geografi:	Pada asal di Eropah utara, barat, dan tengah; kini di seluruh dunia
Klasifikasi bahasa:	Indo-Eropah Bahasa Jermanik;
Pembahagian:	; Jermanik Timur; Jermanik Utara; Jermanik Barat; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
ISO 639-2 / 5:	gem

Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik merupakan sekumpulan bahasa berkaitan yang sebagai cawangan keluarga bahasa Indo-Eropah. Nenek moyang umum untuk bahasa-bahasa dalam cawangan ini ialah Bahasa Proto-Jermanik, dituturkan pada kira-kira ahkir pertengahan milenia pertama Sebelum Masihi di Eropah utara Zaman Besi. Proto-Jermanik, dengan semua keturunannya, disifatkan dengan sebilangan ciri-ciri linguistik yang unik, yang terkenal ialah perubahan konsonan yang dikenali sebagai hukum Grimm. Pelbagai jenis bahasa Jermanik awal memasuki sejarah dengan suku-suku Jermanik yang tinggal di Eropah utara bersempadan dengan Empayar Rom sejak abad ke-2.

Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik yang terbesar ialah Bahasa Inggeris dan Bahasa Jerman, masing-masing dengan kira-kira 400 juta dan 100 juta orang penutur bahasa ibunda. Kumpulan ini juga terdiri daripada bahasa-bahasa utama yang lain, seperti Bahasa Belanda dengan 22 juta dan Bahasa Afrikaans dengan lebih daripada 16 juta orang penutur; dan Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik Utara termasuk Bahasa Norway, Bahasa Denmark, Bahasa Sweden, Bahasa Iceland, dan Bahasa Faroe dengan jumlah kira-kira 20 juta orang penutur. Etnologi SIL menyenaraikan 53 bahasa Jermanik yang berbeza.

Ciri- ciri Bahasa Jerman mempunyai beberapa ciri-ciri yang unik seperi berikut ;

1. Kata kerja peringkat Indo-European (IE) dan sistem aspek kedalam kata kerja sekarang (present tense) dan kata kerja lampau (past tense) (juga dikenali sebagai kata kerja kala lampau ( preterite ) ) 2. Banyak pengkelasan kata kerja yang menggunakan imbuhan dental (/d/ or /t/) sebaliknya huruf vokal pinggiran digunakan (Indo-European ablaut) untuk menunjukkan kata kerja lampau ; perkataan ini dikenali sebagai kata kerja jermanik lemah the Germanic weak verbs; baki kata kerja yang lain dengan ablaut vokal adalam kata kerja Jemanik Kuat theGermanic strong verbs 3. The use of so-called strong and weak adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the definiteness of the noun phrase; (modern English adjectives do not inflect at all, except for the comparative and superlative; this was not the case in Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative) 4. The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law; (the consonants in High German have shifted farther yet by the High German consonant shift) 5. A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages, See Germanic substrate hypothesis 6. The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word, (though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what is added to them) Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families such as the Romance or Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity. Some, such as German, Dutch, and Icelandic have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans have moved toward a largely analytic type. Another characteristic of Germanic languages is the verb second or V2 word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except modern English (which nevertheless appears to have had V2 earlier in its history), but has largely replaced the structure with an overall Subject Verb Object syntax.

Penulisan

Antara bukti-bukti terawal bahasa Jermanik adalah nama-nama yang direkod oleh Tacitus pada abad pertama( khususnya dari hasil karya beliau iaitu Germania), tetapi satu-satunya contoh tulisan bahasa Jermanik terawal tercatat pada abad kedua BC dalam Negau helmet^[1]. Kira-kira pada abad kedua AD, pentutur variasi bahasa Jermanik tertentu telah memperkembangkan Elder Futhark, sejenis susunan abjad yang dikenal sebagai abjad runic atau runic alphabet

Inskripsi runic awal yang sebahagian besarnya terbatas kepada nama peribadi adalah agak sukar untuk diintrepretasi. Bahasa Gothic atau The Gothic language yang ditulis menggunakan abjad Gothic diperkembangkan oleh Bishop Ulfilas untuk penterjemahan Kitab Injil Bible pada Abad ke empat. Selepas itu paderi-paderi yang beragama Kristian/Christian yang ada pengaruh variasi bahasa Jermanik dan juga boleh bertutur, mambaca dan menulis bahasa Latin mula menulis dalam bahasa Jermanik dengan menggunakan abjad Latin yang diubahsuai. Walaubagaimanapun, sepanjang zaman Viking Viking Age, abjad runic masih digunakan dengan meluas di negara-negara Skandinavia.

Selain daripada huruf-huruf Latin yang biasa, bahasa-bahasa Jermanik menggunakan abjad-abjad tambahan dan juga tanda-tanda tambahan untuk improvasi sebutan atau dialek tertentu seperti umlaut, huruf ß (Eszett), IJ, Ø, Æ, Å, Ä, Ö, Ð, Ȝ, dan Þ dan Ƿ, daripada abjad runic. Historic printed German is frequently set in blackletter typefaces (e.g. fraktur or schwabacher).

Diakronik

Nota umum: Jadual dibawah menunjukkan kemajuan sejarah paling penting untuk setiap bahasa secara berperingkat (menegak), dan pengelasan secara hampir (approximate groupings) dalam subkeluarga (medatar). Susunan mendatar dalam setiap kelas tidak mengimplikasikan keserupaan bahasa yang lebih besar atau yang lebih kecil.

Iron Age 500 BC–AD 200	Proto-Germanic
	East Germanic		West Germanic						North Germanic
			South Germanic			Anglo-Frisian
Migration period AD 200–700	Gothic,	Lombardic¹		Old Frankish	Old Saxon	Old Frisian	Old English		Proto-Norse
	Vandalic, Burgundian,		Old High German
Early Middle Ages 700–1100				Old Low Franconian					Runic Old West Norse				Runic Old East Norse
Middle Ages 1100–1350			Middle High German	Middle Dutch	Middle Low German		Middle English		Old Icelandic	Old Norwegian			Early Old Danish	Early Old Swedish	Early Old Gutnish
Late Middle Ages² 1350–1500			Early New High German				Middle English	Early Scots	Late Old Icelandic	Old Faroese	Old Norn	Middle Norwegian	Late Old Danish	Late Old Swedish	Late Old Gutnish
Early Modern Age 1500–1700	Crimean Gothic			Low Franconian varieties, including Dutch		Middle Frisian	Early Modern English	Middle Scots	Icelandic	Faroese	Norn	Norwegian	Danish	Swedish	Gutnish
Modern Age 1700 to present	all extinct		High German varieties		Low Saxon varieties	Frisian varieties	English varieties	Scots varieties			extinct³				extinct³

Note 1: There are conflicting opinions on the classification of Lombardic. Contrary to its isolated position in the table above, it also has been classified as close to either Upper German or Old Saxon. See the article on the Lombardic language for more information.

Note 2: Late Middle Ages refers to the post-Black Death period. Especially for the language situation in Norway this event was important.

Note 3: The speakers of Norn were assimilated to speak the Modern Scots varieties, and the Gutnish language today, is practically a dialect of Swedish.

Contemporary

Mentioned here are all the principal and some secondary contemporary varieties; individual articles linked to below, may contain larger family trees. For example, many Low Saxon varieties are discussed on Low Saxon besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.

Proto-Germanic
- West Germanic languages
  - High German languages
    - standard German
    - Central German
      - East Central German
        Lausitzisch-Neumärkisch
        
        Obersächsisch
        
        Schlesisch
        
        Thüringisch
        
        Nordobersächsisch
        
        Hochpreußisch
      - West Central German
        Osthessisch
        
        Nordhessisch
        
        Mittelhessisch
        
        Rheinfränkisch
        
        Moselfränkisch
        
        Ripuarisch
        
        Luxembourgish
        
        Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
    - Upper German
      - Alemannic German
        Swabian German, including Stuttgart
        
        Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
        Alsatian
        
        Mittelalemannisch
        
        High Alemannic German, including Zürich German and Bernese German
        
        Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
      - Austro-Bavarian German
        North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
        
        Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
        
        South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
        
        Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
      - Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
    - Wymysorys (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish, and Scots)
  - Low Franconian
    - Standard Dutch
      - Old Dutch
        Middle Dutch
        Modern Dutch
        Brabantic
        
        Zealandic
        
        West Flemish
        
        East Flemish
        
        Hollandic
        
        Limburgish
        
        Zuid-Gelders
    - Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
  - Low German
    - West Low German
    - East Low German
      - Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low Saxon)
      - Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
      - Mittelpommersch
      - Ostpommersch
      - Niederpreußisch
      - Brandenburgisch
  - Anglo-Frisian
    - Old Frisian
      - Frisian
        Stadsfries language
        
        West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
        Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
        
        Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk)
        Noardhoeks
        
        South Frisian (Súdhoeks)
        
        Southwest Frisian (Súdwesthoeksk)
        
        Schiermonnikoogs
        
        Hindeloopers
        
        Aasters
        
        Westers
        
        East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
        Saterland Frisian language
        
        Several extinct Frisian variants
        
        North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
        Mainland Frisian
        Mooring
        
        Goesharde Frisian
        
        Wiedingharde Frisian
        
        Halligen Frisian
        
        Karrharde Frisian
        
        Island Frisian
        Söl'ring
        
        Fering
        
        Öömrang
        
        Heligolandic
    - Anglic
      - English language
        Old English
        Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
        Early Modern English
        Modern English
        British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English dialects, and others, Welsh English, Scottish English) and Irish English
        
        North American English (American English and Canadian English)
        
        Australian English and New Zealand English
        
        South African English
        
        South Asian English (Indian English)
        
        South-East Asian English (Singapore English, Malaysian English)
        
        West Indian English (Caribbean English)
      - Scots language
        Early Scots^[2] (from Northern Middle English with a significant influx of words from Anglo-Norman and Norse)
        Middle Scots
        Modern Scots language (huge influx of Latinate vocabulary, mostly via Norman French, some Scanadinavian influence via Anglo-Norse)
        Northern Scots
        North Northern
        
        Mid Northern
        North East Scots
        Doric aka South Northern
        
        Central Scots
        North East
        
        South East Central
        
        West Central
        
        South West Central Scots
        
        South Scots "Border Tongue"
        
        Insular Scots
        
        Ulster Scots aka "Ullans" (Ulster/Lallans)
      - Yola
- North Germanic
  - Proto-Norse
    - Old Norse
      - West Scandinavian
        Norwegian (generally Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
        Bokmål (official written standard)
        
        Høgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
        
        Landsmål (unofficial written standard)
        
        Nynorsk (official written standard)
        
        Riksmål (unofficial written standard)
        
        Vestlandsk
        Sørlandsk
        
        South-West Norwegian
        
        Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
        
        North-West Norwegian
        
        Nord-Norsk
        Helgeland Norwegian
        
        Nordland Norwegian
        
        Troms Norwegian
        
        Finnmark Norwegian
        
        East Norwegian
        Vikvær Norwegian
        
        Middle East Norwegian
        
        Oppland Norwegian
        
        Østerdal Norwegian
        
        Midland Norwegian
        Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
        
        Valdres and Hallingdal
        
        Western Telemark Norwegian
        
        Eastern Telemark Norwegian
        
        Trøndelag Norwegian
        Outer Trøndelag Norwegian
        
        Inner Trøndelag Norwegian
        
        Namdal Norwegian
        
        South-eastern Trøndersk
        
        Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
        
        Härdalic (also considered Norrlandic)
        
        Icelandic
        Old Icelandic
        Modern Icelandic
        
        Gøtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
        
        Faroese
        
        Norn (extinct)
        Shetland Norn (extinct)
        
        Orkney Norn (extinct)
      - East Scandinavian
        Danish
        Rigsdansk/Rigsmål
        Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skåne, Halland, Blekinge)
        Bornholmsk
        
        Scanian
        
        Island Danish
        
        Jutlandic/Jutish
        North Jutlandic
        
        East Jutlandic
        
        West Jutlandic
        
        Sønderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
        
        Swedish
        Dalecarlian
        Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamål dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
        
        Old Swedish
        New Swedish
        Modern Swedish
        Svealand Swedish
        
        Norrlandic
        
        Götish
        
        East Swedish/Finland Swedish
        
        South Swedish
        
        Götalandic
      - Old Gutnish
        Modern Gutnish

Alternate classification of contemporary North Germanic languages

Insular Scandinavian
- Icelandic
- Faroese
Continental Scandinavian
- Danish
- Norwegian
- Swedish

Perbandingan kosa kata

Bahasa Inggeris	Bahasa Scots	Bahasa Frisia Barat	Bahasa Afrikaans	Bahasa Belanda	Bahasa Saxon Rendah	Bahasa Jerman	Bahasa Goth	Bahasa Iceland	Bahasa Faroe	Bahasa Sweden	Bahasa Denmark	Bahasa Norway (Bokmål)	Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk)
Apple	Aiple	Apel	Appel	Appel	Appel	Apfel	Aplus	Epli	Epl(i) ^[3]	Äpple	Æble	Eple	Eple
Board	Buird	Board	Bord	Bord	Boord	Brett / Bord ^[4]	Baúrd	Borð	Borð	Bord	Bord	Bord	Bord
Beech	Beech	Boeke/ Boekebeam	Beuk	Beuk	Böke	Buche	Bōka ^[5]/ -bagms	Bók	Bók	Bok	Bøg	Bøk	Bøk, Bok
Book	Beuk	Boek	Boek	Boek	Book	Buch	Bōka	Bók	Bók	Bok	Bog	Bok	Bok
Breast	Breest	Boarst	Bors	Borst	Bost	Brust	Brusts	Brjóst	Bróst	Bröst	Bryst	Bryst	Bryst
Brown	Broun	Brún	Bruin	Bruin	Bruun	Braun	Bruns	Brúnn	Brúnur	Brun	Brun	Brun	Brun
Day	Day	Dei	Dag	Dag	Dag	Tag	Dags	Dagur	Dagur	Dag	Dag	Dag	Dag
Dead	Deid	Dea	Dood	Dood	Dood	Tot	Dauþs	Dauður	Deyður	Död	Død	Død	Daud
Die (Starve)	Dee	Stjerre	Sterf	Sterven	Döen/ Starven	Sterben	Diwan	Deyja	Doyggja	Dö	Dø	Dø	Døy
Enough	Eneuch	Genôch	Genoeg	Genoeg	Noog	Genug	Ganōhs	Nóg	Nóg/ Nógmikið	Nog	Nok	Nok	Nok
Finger	Finger	Finger	Vinger	Vinger	Finger	Finger	Figgrs	Fingur	Fingur	Finger	Finger	Finger	Finger
Give	Gie	Jaan	Gee	Geven	Geven	Geben	Giban	Gefa	Geva	Giva / Ge	Give	Gi	Gje(va)
Glass	Gless	Glês	Glas	Glas	Glas	Glas		Gler	Glas	Glas	Glas	Glass	Glas
Gold	Gowd	Goud	Goud	Goud	Gold	Gold	Gulþ	Gull	Gull	Guld/ Gull	Guld	Gull	Gull
Hand	Haund	Hân	Hand	Hand	Hand	Hand	Handus	Hönd	Hond	Hand	Hånd	Hånd	Hand
Head	Heid	Holle	Hoof ^[6]/ Kop^[7]	Hoofd/ Kop^[7]	Kopp^[7]	Haupt/ Kopf^[7]	Háubiþ	Höfuð	Høvd/ Høvur	Huvud	Hoved	Hode	Hovud
High	Heich	Heech	Hoog	Hoog	Hoog	Hoch	Háuh	Hár	Høg/ur	Hög	Høj	Høy/høg	Høg
Home	Hame	Hiem	Heim ^[8]/ Tuis^[9]	Heim ^[8]/Thuis^[9]	Heim	Heim	Háimōþ	Heim	Heim	Hem	Hjem	Hjem/heim	Heim
Hook	Heuk	Hoek	Haak	Haak	Haak	Haken	Krappa/ Krampa	Krókur	Krókur/ Ongul	Hake/ Krok	Hage/ Krog	Hake/ Krok	Hake/ Krok^[10]
House	Hoose	Hûs	Huis	Huis	Huus	Haus	Hūs	Hús	Hús	Hus	Hus	Hus	Hus
Many	Mony	Mannich/Mennich	Menige	Menig	Mennig	Manch	Manags	Margir	Mangir/ Nógvir	Många	Mange	Mange	Mange
Moon	Muin	Moanne	Maan	Maan	Maan	Mond	Mēna	Tungl/ Máni	Máni/ Tungl	Måne	Måne	Måne	Måne
Night	Nicht	Nacht	Nag	Nacht	Natt/ Nacht	Nacht	Nótt	Nótt	Natt	Natt	Nat	Natt	Natt
No	Nae	Nee	Nee	Nee(n)	Nee	Nein (Nö, Nee)	Nē	Nei	Nei	Nej	Nej	Nei	Nei
Old	Auld	Âld	Oud	Oud, Gammel ^[11]	Oll	Alt	Sineigs	Gamall (but: eldri, elstur)	Gamal (but: eldri, elstur)	Gammal (but: äldre, äldst)	Gammel (but: ældre, ældst)	Gammel (but: eldre, eldst)	Gam(m)al (but: eldre, eldst)
One	Ane	Ien	Een	Een	Een	Eins	Áins	Einn	Ein	En	En	En	Ein
Ounce	Unce	Ûns	Ons	Ons	Ons	Unze	Unkja	Únsa	Únsa	Uns	Unse	Unse	Unse
Snow	Snaw	Snie	Sneeu	Sneeuw	Snee	Schnee	Snáiws	Snjór	Kavi/ Snjógvur	Snö	Sne	Snø	Snø
Stone	Stane	Stien	Steen	Steen	Steen	Stein	Stáins	Steinn	Steinur	Sten	Sten	Stein	Stein
That	That	Dat	Dit, Daardie	Dat, Die	Dat (Dit)	Das	Þata	Það	Tað	Det	Det	Det	Det
Two/Twain	Twa	Twa	Twee	Twee	Twee	Zwei (Zwo)	Twái	Tveir/ Tvær/ Tvö	Tveir (/Tvá)	Två	To	To	To ^[12]
Who	Wha	Wa	Wie	Wie	Wokeen	Wer	Ƕas (Hwas)	Hver	Hvør	Vem	Hvem	Hvem	Kven
Worm	Wirm	Wjirm	Wurm	Wurm/ Worm	Worm	Wurm	Maþa	Maðkur, Ormur	Maðkur/ Ormur	Mask/ Orm ^[13]	Orm	Mark/ Makk/ Orm	Mark/ Makk/ Orm ^[13]
Bahasa Inggeris	Bahasa Scots	Bahasa Frisia Barat	Bahasa Afrikaans	Bahasa Belanda	Bahasa Saxon Rendah	Bahasa Jerman	Bahasa Goth	Bahasa Iceland	Bahasa Faroe	Bahasa Sweden	Bahasa Denmark	Bahasa Norway (Bokmål)	Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk)

Lihat juga

Catatan

^ Malcolm Todd (1992). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing.
^ Purely modern term; it contradicts contemporary usage, which designated Scottish English as Inglis (i.e. English), whereas Scottis (i.e., Scots) meant Gaelic. But such chronological terminology is widely used, for example, by Scottish Language Dictionaries Ltd. (Formally SNDA), Dr. Anne King Diarkibkan 2006-06-16 di Wayback Machine of The University of Edinburgh Diarkibkan 2006-08-18 di Wayback Machine and by The University of Glasgow Diarkibkan 2005-12-18 di Wayback Machine. It also is used in The Oxford Companion to the English Language and The Cambridge History of English and American Literature
^ The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.
^ Brett used in Southern, Bord also used in Northern Germany
^ Attested meaning 'letter', but also means beech in other Germanic languages, cf. Russian buk 'beech', bukva 'letter', maybe from Gothic.
^ Now only used in compound words such as hoofpyn (headache) and metaphorically, such as hoofstad (capital city).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".
^ ^a ^b Archaic: now only used in compound words such as 'heimwee' (homesickness).
^ ^a ^b From a compound phrase akin to "to house"
^ Ongel is also used for fishing hook.
^ Old and decayed.
^ Dialectally tvo/ två/ tvei (m), tvæ (f), tvau (n).
^ ^a ^b The cognate means 'snake'.

Pautan luar

[1] Malcolm Todd (1992). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing.

[2] Purely modern term; it contradicts contemporary usage, which designated Scottish English as Inglis (i.e. English), whereas Scottis (i.e., Scots) meant Gaelic. But such chronological terminology is widely used, for example, by Scottish Language Dictionaries Ltd. (Formally SNDA), Dr. Anne King Diarkibkan 2006-06-16 di Wayback Machine of The University of Edinburgh Diarkibkan 2006-08-18 di Wayback Machine and by The University of Glasgow Diarkibkan 2005-12-18 di Wayback Machine. It also is used in The Oxford Companion to the English Language and The Cambridge History of English and American Literature

[3] The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.

[Bord-4] Brett used in Southern, Bord also used in Northern Germany

[Bōka-5] Attested meaning 'letter', but also means beech in other Germanic languages, cf. Russian buk 'beech', bukva 'letter', maybe from Gothic.

[hoof-6] Now only used in compound words such as hoofpyn (headache) and metaphorically, such as hoofstad (capital city).

[kopf-7] From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".

[heim-8] Archaic: now only used in compound words such as 'heimwee' (homesickness).

[tuis-9] From a compound phrase akin to "to house"

[ongel-10] Ongel is also used for fishing hook.

[11] Old and decayed.

[12] Dialectally tvo/ två/ tvei (m), tvæ (f), tvau (n).

[orm-13] The cognate means 'snake'.

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Bahasa Jermanik
Bahasa Teutonik
Taburan geografi:	Pada asal di Eropah utara, barat, dan tengah; kini di seluruh dunia
Klasifikasi bahasa:	Indo-Eropah Bahasa Jermanik
Pembahagian:	Jermanik Timur Jermanik Utara Jermanik Barat
ISO 639-2 / 5:	`gem`